MYTH-701 Lessons

A richly embroidered pillow sits puffed up in Professor Wessex’s chair today. Its material looks silky to the touch and its deep color makes it all the more inviting. Of course, there are no matching pillows for the students. That kind of frivolity is likely to cause chaos. It seems a bit silly, as Professor Wessex rarely even sits in her chair…

As the time before class draws on, some students look upward to note a startling change. The castle’s ceilings are usually quite impressive on their own for their sheer height, but today they’ve been switched for decorative arches with elaborate cupolas, mimicking a style from the Middle East. Professor Wessex enters while most of the class is distractedly craning their necks upward, causing them to snap back to reality once she begins the lesson.

Introduction
During the latter part of the Middle Ages, specifically from the 8th to the 14th centuries, the Middle East was a mecca for mathematicians, scientists, philosophers, inventors, and intellectuals of all stripes and areas of study. During this period, if it was interesting and educational, it was likely conceived of, or at least widely discussed, in the Middle East. However, they were not just interested in science, math, and inventions, but the fine arts as well. Architecture, art in general, culture, poetry, language, and literature also featured prominently. It is these latter topics that we will be looking at today through the myths we examine. 

Before we do that, however, it is important to demarcate just exactly what and where the Middle East is. It is generally close to the Mediterranean, an area with which many may be familiar. Traditional definitions of the Middle East include present-day Asian countries such as Iran, Iraq, Israel, Turkey, and Jordan, as well as Egypt (due to its cultural similarities) despite being a part of Africa. However, more lenient definitions can include countries that stretch farther into Asia and Africa, such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Libya, and the Sudan. Naturally, it is difficult -- and often unwise -- to make generalizations about such a varied area. However, for the purpose of contextualizing your learning today, we will do so. In general terms, this area is predominantly Arabic-speaking, often Muslim, and steeped in history. 

Creatures
While most Western textbooks do not focus on Eastern magical creatures, there are quite a few that have made it into prominent textbooks by British, American, or other authors. You will hopefully have heard of the Horned Serpent, Re’em, and Occamy, all of which reside in the East (and therefore also in the Middle East). If you have not, well, you may consider this your personal invitation to educate yourself. I hear we have a very excellent library.

As you can imagine, however, these are not the only magical creatures that reside in Asia, nor even the Middle East. There are a few stand out creatures we will take the time to go over today. These creatures are not only important to magizoology as a whole, but feature prominently in myths surrounding the culture. 

Ghouls
The first of these creatures is actually more of a category than a singular beast, and if you have taken other electives, you will hopefully be familiar with it. Ghouls, as discussed in Care of Magical Creatures (and even more extensively in Ghoul Studies), are a rather well-known creature that can be found here in the UK. However, today we are not specifically talking about the indiginous creature, but the much more vague category referred to in Middle Eastern myth. Myths and other literature from this area feature ghouls -- a collection of spiritual or horrid creatures that run the gamut from vampire to goblin to ghost -- in a large percentage of myths. But in truth, very few of the ghouls in these myths are the creatures we know in England. As mentioned, many are other types of creatures in some other way associated with death, such as ghosts, zombies, Inferii, hags, goblins, and even mundane creatures or ghosts. 

Therefore, rarely are two references to ghouls the same in Middle Eastern folklore. The few things they do have in common is that they are associated with evil and death, are often antagonists to the story, typically are carnivorous, and particularly enjoy feasting on deceased humans. While we will not be covering any myths today that deal with ghouls, if we had more time, the topic would naturally come up, as it is very difficult to do a detailed study of Arabic myths without touching on ghouls.

Djinn
Next, and perhaps ironically, we have djinn. As with ghouls, djinn are a bit of a nebulous category of many similar creatures. There are many names for these creatures in Middle Eastern myth, including djinni, jinn, and even genie. However, the djinn of myth have much more in common than ghouls. They are nearly always portrayed as incredibly powerful and equally dangerous. They are separate from humans, but just as intelligent, and are often at odds with humans because of their ability to grant “wishes” or favors that do not turn out exactly as the wisher imagined. Of course, these are mostly assumed to be misconstrued stories of witches and wizards, but the creature upon which djinn are based does actually exist. Again, this may be review for those of you with a background in Ghoul Studies.

Officially discovered as recently as 2003, Djinn Ghouls are actually an extremely dangerous and violent breed of Ghoul. These are not the vast hodge podge of death-related creatures we just discussed, but true Ghouls, many varieties of which are native to the UK. This type of Ghoul evolves from the common house variety after experiencing great trauma and violence, and are extremely powerful and dangerous. While these creatures are not nearly as populous now, in previous eras with lower populations and more isolated societies, it would not be uncommon to stumble upon Djinn Ghouls in caves, abandoned ruins, and the like. While there are no documented cases of these aggressive beasts conversing with humans (or any other species), there is much yet unknown about them, and it remains possible that many mythical mentions of them have some basis in fact. 

Chol
Finally, we have a much more obscure creature, the Chol. While it is not featured in as many myths, recent popular belief is that many mythical (or historical) events were the work of Chol. Indeed, many think that Chol were actually once a very widespread creature that has been incorrectly identified in myths, and unfortunately become very endangered in recent years. 

The reason this creature is often confused with others is because of its ability to camouflage and, to some small extent, transform its body. It is not a “true” shapeshifter, but instead relies on slight alterations, such as additional limbs, losing limbs, or an elongated or shortened beak. This, combined with the ability to change the color and overall appearance of its feathers, results in a beast that could easily be mistaken for something else in a modern eyewitness report. Without any transfiguration or adaptation, Chol are simple burrowing birds that live in the sands of the Middle Eastern deserts. They are also capable of flight, however, and have often been misclassified as Bar (enormous birds that rival the size of the North American Thunderbirds) as well as the Egyptian Short-Tail, a small species of dragon. 

Myths
For the rest of the lesson, we will take time to focus on a few myths. As mentioned, the Middle East has a rich cultural and literary history, and so they are in no short supply. We will touch on as many as we can, but will still only scratch the surface of the many tales this region has to offer. 

Shanameh (Book of Kings)
First on our list is Shanameh, or the Book of Kings. Written by Ferdowsi around the turn of the first millenia, this example of epic poetry is a sample of Persian literature that, predictably, tells the story of the many kings of Persia. However, this also includes topics such as their country, courts, families, and foes. It traces the lineage of the kings all the way to the end of that particular empire in the early 600s CE. 

While there is a wealth of topics and kings -- better known as shahs -- to choose from, we only have time for one today. This tale deals with two shahs, or one current shah and the eventual transfer of power to another. The story opens with Fereydun on the throne during his 500 year reign of peace after deposing the last tyrannical king. Towards the end of Fereydun’s lifetime, he began to think about who might take over his kingdom. He felt his youngest son, Iraj, was the best suited to rule due to his innate talents, including magical ability. The king was aware of problems with the dragon populations in certain prominent areas of his kingdom, and knew that only Iraj would have the proper skills to protect his people. Eventually, he decided to split the kingdom between his three sons: Salm, Tur, and Iraj. Despite his attempt at equity, however, both Salm and Tur felt slighted, as the youngest son, Iraj, received the most desirable, profitable,and prominent parts of the kingdom. Therefore, Salm and Tur conspired to kill their brother in order to take his power for themselves. While they did receive the lands and wealth, of course his magical ability was not so easily transferable as they had imagined. Moreover, this started a bloody feud between clan Tur and clan Iraj.

However, little did the two kings know that Iraj had conceived a child by a slave -- who is historically presumed to be a witch captured from a neighboring empire. This child, an unnamed woman, eventually bears a son, Manuchehr, and teaches him of his past. As part of the feud, Manuchehr swears revenge and kills both his great-uncles. Sadly, poorly thought-out violence begat even more violence, and started a war that would rage for centuries in a once-united kingdom.

Legend of Keret
This particular myth is one of the many examples of epic poetry that comes from the Middle East. Much like the Norse Eddas, this epic poem tells one long story. This one focuses on the story’s namesake, King Keret of Hubur. The King, according to some accounts, was in fact the son of a god, El. However, he was beset by many hardships, the most troubling of which was his lack of an heir. Despite rather prolific breeding, none of his children had ever lived past infancy. More, all of his siblings besides him had perished, therefore it seemed inevitable that his family’s kingdom would be no more.

Naturally, he did the only thing he could: prayed feverishly to the gods. In his sleep that night, the god El appeared to him and insisted that Keret go to war with the neighboring kingdom of Udum, and thus claim this king’s daughter as a wife to solve all his problems. Keret set sail to do so immediately, only stopping at a temple to Athirat, the goddess of the sea. He struck a deal with her, asking for her aid in winning the upcoming battle at sea in exchange for immense wealth and treasure afterwards. 

The war was won as well as the king’s daughter, Hariya, and the two went on to have eight children, most of them daughters. However, Keret never went back to fulfill his promise to the sea goddess. The children grew up strong and healthy, but Keret himself was suddenly afflicted with a grave illness by the vengeful Athirat. His other children, namely his son Elhu, were rather unmoved and were mainly surprised that the son of El could be sick at all. However, Keret pleaded with his daughter Tatmanat to pray to the gods for him. Only the god El stirred himself upon hearing her prayers, as the other gods agreed that Keret should not have crossed Athirat. As El could not heal Keret on his own, he instead created Shatiqtu, a “winged woman,” who had the power to heal Keret, and did so.

That was not the end of Keret’s woes, though. Large parts of the myth (and the tablet upon which it was inscribed) are missing, but we know that Keret and Yassub (his oldest son) fought over the former’s worth and if he deserved the throne. The feud between them ends with Yassub’s skull smashed in, but strangely the next we see of Keret’s family, all that is left is his daughter Tatmanat, and the rest are dead for unknown reasons.

Arabian Nights
Finally we come to One Thousand and One Nights, also called the Arabian Nights, which make up the story of Scheherazade and the king Shahryār. As briefly mentioned, the king had been spurned by a previous wife, who he had then beheaded. It seemed that he had taken a bit of a liking to the practice and from that day forward, would take a new woman to be his wife every day, celebrate into the evening, and the next morning, behead her. As would be expected, unmarried women suddenly became rather scarce, and the king began to take humble peasant girls to be his wife, including Scheherazade who actually volunteered for the job. Instead of going to sleep that evening, the girl insists on telling her younger sister a story to entertain her, as they are in a new palace and the girl is frightened. The king permits it (as what harm can a person do when they are to be dead in just a few hours), but craftily, Scheherazade weaves a tale that catches the king’s interest, cutting the tale short of resolution right before dawn when she is to be executed. When submitting to her death, the king permits her to live for one more day so that he can hear the rest of the story that evening. This process is repeated until she runs out of stories. By which time, the king and his queen have several children together, and the king has no desire to kill a woman with whom he has fallen in love.   

This story is indeed just a part of the story enclosed in the Arabian Nights, and while it is the primary story, it is rarely mentioned except for the beginning and the end of the tale. The middle parts are finely interwoven stories linked together, with the plot of three or more tales that need to be resolved before the final cliffhanger can be addressed. But, of course, in resolving the cliffhanger, inevitably another one appears and the process repeats again. Therefore, it is often difficult to summarize the contents of a single story in the Nights, as one must do a fair bit of jumping around to find all of the pieces, and often background knowledge of another tale is required to understand the full plot.

Interestingly, this story was not originally laid out in one go. Instead, many of these tales predated the Nights and were later skillfully weaved together to create a seamless effect of transitions from one to the next. It is, essentially, the greatest collection of existing Arabian myths and folktales all in one place. Naturally, there are many variations, particularly in those translated to English, but any single one of them is worth a read if you can wade through at least three volumes (and at most, twelve) to see the end. 

We will end the class by looking at one other story from the Nights that is quite popular. No, I do not mean that accursed “Aladdin,” his lamp, or his carpet. This Aladdin story is one of quite a few that were not part of the original transcript and have only become associated more recently. These falsely attributed, though interesting, stories also include well-known tales such as Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, as well as the story of Sinbad the Sailor.

The example myth we will look at today is one just as popular as the previously mentioned ones, though perhaps not very famous in the Western world. The tale in question is The Fisherman and the Jinni. In it, a poor fisherman goes to cast out his nets one day to provide for his family. Each time he cast his net it was incredibly heavy, but each time it was laden with flotsam and jetsam instead of fish: a dead donkey, muddy pottery, and broken bits and pieces. Now, the fisherman had a strict rule about only casting his nets four times a day, and knowing that this was his last time for the day, he prayed to Allah to fill his nets with something to sell. This fourth time, he still caught no fish, but a peculiar oblong brass jar.

The jar was set with the seal of an ancient king, and the fisherman was delighted, as it meant it would fetch a good price at market. Before selling it, however, he decided to more thoroughly inspect what he intended to sell, and opened the sealed jar. Lo and behold, out of it came pouring a thick vapor that coalesced into the form of a fearsome Jinni. The tale goes on to describe the fearsome proportions of the Jinni (also called an “Ifrit”) in great detail, discussing its fearsome burning eyes and sharp teeth. 

When the Jinni spoke, it was only to ask the fisherman how he would prefer to die. Naturally bewildered, the fisherman asked why the Jinni would want to kill him simply for freeing him, but the Jinni simply repeated himself. Becoming alarmed, the fisherman begged the Jinni to tell him, and the creature finally relented.*

He told the fisherman the story of how an ancient king, Sulayman imprisoned him in the brass jar for working magic against him. For the first hundred years, the Jinni proclaimed in his tiny prison that he would bestow great riches upon whoever freed him. That century came and went, and in the next one, the Jinni promised even greater wealth. When that century too came and went, he vowed to grant one wish to any who found his jar and released him. When this did not happen either, the Jinni eventually became bitter and decreed that he should kill whosoever opened his jar to free him, but that he would allow that person a death of their choosing. All told, the Jinni had been locked away for over a thousand years. 

Understandably, the fisherman protested the unfairness of this arrangement, but saw that there was no reasoning with his vengeful adversary. In a stroke of quick thinking, the fisherman acquiesced, but asked that the Jinni answer but one question before killing him. The fisherman insisted that he did not believe that the Jinni could have spent all those years in the jar, nor indeed fit in the jar in the first place, which was not even large enough to contain the creature’s hand, let alone its whole body. The Jinni, falling for the ruse, demonstrated that he could indeed fit (by turning into vapor once more) and the fisherman quickly sealed the monstrosity back inside. Immediately realizing his mistake, the Jinni began offering the fisherman great wealth. Rather logically, the fisherman declined this offer, stating that he had no reason to believe that the Jinni would not immediately pull the same stunt, and went on to say that this situation was like that of King Yuman and his sage, a story which the Jinni had never heard.* At this point the story then morphs into a telling of King Yuman and his sage Duban, which is an equally popular story, but one we will not have time to get to today. In fact, the story of the Jinni and the fisherman is not quite over either, as more occurs over the course of the entire Nights, but in the style of Scheherazade, I will leave the end of the story hanging. 

Closing
That will have to do for our brief look at Middle Eastern mythology. Those three myths, along with our more abstract discussion of themes and topics, will have at least given you a general idea of the uniqueness of the stories from this area, as well as its history. For your assignments this week, you have your quiz and an essay which requires you to explore one common theme between all of these myths. Optionally, you may also choose to complete an essay encouraging you to look at another story from the Thousand and One Nights.

Note:
* This asterisk denotes the point at which another “night” occurs, or an area where the stories are normally split into “separate” tales.  

Original lesson written by Professor Venita Wessex
Image credits here, here, here, here, and here