ANCR-301 Lessons

Professor Wessex sits at the ornate wooden desk at the front of the room. She shifts large stacks of parchment around on her desk, almost completely hidden by the assorted papers. To her left, a quill scratches notes onto a separate piece of parchment of its own accord. When the last student is seated, the professor stands up and vanishes the piles of papers before addressing the class.

Introduction
Welcome back to the Room of Runes. It may be hard to believe, but another year is nearly at an end. Today, we will focus on examples that are much shorter than Beedle’s Tales and take a closer look at a selection of artefacts inscribed with runes, particularly those with a magical purpose.

We’ll also use this opportunity to review everything we have studied over the past two years in preparation for your finals next lesson by looking at artefacts inscribed with all three of the Germanic runic alphabets. Some of these items are well known the world over, while others are barely understood, so exercise caution. Despite the best efforts of magiarchaeologists and runologists, there is still a lot we still don’t know about the use and effects of many ancient runic inscriptions. There’s a reason curse-breakers are always employed when ancient sites are explored.

But enough introduction, let’s begin.

Elder Futhark Artefacts
Firstly, we are going to look at some items that were inscribed with runes from the Elder Futhark. Of course, we have already seen some of these last year, but there are a few additional things I want to point out about them today. Many of the earliest runic inscriptions, particularly from the 2nd century, bear the names of individuals. These inscriptions are usually found on portable items such as spears, shield mounts, or brooches. Interestingly, some of these inscriptions also contain a verb explaining that the named individual was actually the maker or carver of the runes, instead of stating their ownership. This suggests that there was some significance to the carving of the runes.

By stating who carved the runes (or possibly made the item, as some inscriptions translate as “made” and others as “carved”), the rune-master records his control over the runes and asserts his magic.¹ In this way, these items, actually various forms of magical talismans or amulets, were strengthened. Additionally, there was a component of pride to these inscriptions. You may think of it as similar to the branding that competing joke shops do, or the signature characteristics that rival wandmakers use in their creations. The long and short of it is this: often, it mattered little who owned the item, as it was likely to switch hands frequently due to raiding, or be passed down through the family (very much unlike wands in this sense). Instead, it mattered who created it or imbued it in the first place.

As the runes spread with their Germanic creators to more territories, the use of runes changed. By the 3rd century, we find runic inscriptions on inlays for spearheads. In contrast to the inscriptions from the previous century, these inscriptions do not name the maker of the runes, but rather appear to bear the name of the weapon. One such inscription from East Germany reads “ranja,” which Page translates as “the one that makes them run” or possibly, simply “stabber.”² As you will discover if you become a historian, linguist, curse-breaker -- or really anyone who deals with trends over a long period of time -- patterns come and go and little is static for long. While this makes life interesting, it also has the side-effect of complicating our studies.

The next few centuries provide few examples, but we eventually find a return to the pattern of the earliest inscriptions on a brooch or fibula from Germany in the 6th century C.E. One such example is the so-called Frei-Laubersheim fibula, which you can see in this image:

The fibula bears the inscription “boso:wraetruna” on the first line, which consists of the name “Boso” followed by the easily understandable Germanic words for “wrote runes.”³ The runes on the bottom line are much harder to interpret, unfortunately, and there is much debate about their meaning. There is even doubt about exactly which runes are included in the inscriptions.

As you recall, runes were used to inscribe all manner of items, both the everyday and the highly unique. You might remember the Lindholm amulet from Scandinavia that we studied last year, which has the magical word “alu” as well as repetitions of other runes.  This sequence is one of many (also including “lathu,” “ota,” and others) that is widely considered to be a magical charm by scholars, though theories still circulate as to what exactly the charm might do. This “alu” charm appears frequently on runic artefacts, particularly during this time period and can be found on bracteates and numerous other small talismans.

Of course, that is not the only place these symbols were used. These particular three magical runes can also be found on some larger, less portable objects from the later Elder Futhark period, namely the Scandinavian rune stones. These monumental stones reached their height of popularity later on during the age of the Younger Futhark, but the first began to appear in Norway -- followed later by Sweden and Denmark -- towards the end of the period during which Elder Futhark was used, around the late 7th and throughout the 8th centuries. These stones bear inscriptions of magical runes, alongside with names, both in commemoration and stating the name of the rune carver.

Transitional Artefacts
No, transitional artefacts are not objects that have latent, but partially hidden, magical powers, as you might be forgiven for assuming. That definition of “transitional” will stay in Potions class. Nor is it the same definition as is used in Alchemy, where the characteristics of one planet slowly shift into another. However, this is certainly a closer meaning. As you will learn if you continue your foray into the ancient, and as I keep repeating to you, periods of time are not as set in stone as they seem to be. Transitional artefacts are proof of this. There are quite a few runic artefacts, magical and otherwise, that show a slow shift from the Elder Futhark to the younger alphabets, where two (or more) alphabets are used alongside each other. Elder Futhark did not just disappear overnight.

To demonstrate this, we have a particularly interesting set of late inscriptions from Denmark, including the Snoldelev Stone, dated around 700 to 800 C.E. These stones are special for two reasons: firstly, they show signs that the language and the script were slowly changing from Norse and the Elder Futhark towards Old Danish and the Younger Futhark. Secondly, these stones all bear runes imbued by a carver with strong magic, threatening those who might dare to move them with curses and the power of the runes.

Muggles consider these runic curses nothing but show; however, this is because curse-breakers managed to disarm their hidden triggers several centuries ago before Muggle archaeologists rediscovered these stones.⁴

Younger Futhark Artefacts
The period when the Younger Futhark was in use in Scandinavia roughly coincides with the age of the Vikings. As such, rune stones from this period bear ample witness to the exploits of these fierce warriors, both in Scandinavia and far beyond. Indeed, there is evidence of this as far away as the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, where someone made the effort to scratch the name Hálfdanr in runes into the marble stones.⁵

In many ways, the great rune stones of the Viking age are similar to our modern gravestones and monuments, or even, as R. I. Page suggests, commemorating the deaths of notable figures as a form of public documentation similar to obituaries in newspapers today. These stones record the deeds, exploits and quite often the deaths of individual Vikings, some of them far away in foreign lands, with only the stone to mark their life and death back in their motherland.⁶ Many of these stones were erected and carved by the children and descendants of the commemorated individuals, although there are also examples of stones that were made or ordered to be made by the person mentioned on the stone.

However, there are also stones that commemorate more mundane achievements. One of these is the building of bridges or causeways, which contributed greatly to the quality of local trade routes and road conditions, a responsibility which usually lay with the local nobility. The runestones that commemorate these endeavours obviously considered this an important accomplishment, as one such stone proclaims that “Jarlabanki had this stone put up in his own lifetime. And he made this causeway for his soul’s sake.”⁷

While the way these Vikings drew attention to their own achievements might seem like bragging and or a show of arrogance, we must consider the background of the culture that placed these stones. This culture thrived on tales of bold deeds and superhuman feats, as is evident in many of their legends. As such, stones that people had made to commemorate their own achievements are a natural consequence of their culture. More than anything, the runestones of the Vikings show a pronounced concern with commemorating the deeds of individuals, be they of social involvement at home, or warrior exploits abroad.

That is not to imply, however, that runestones were the only form of runic inscription from this time period. However, in the interest of leaving something for you to write about in your assignments, we will leave it at that.

Anglo-Saxon Futhork Artefacts
As we move onward in time, we come to the Anglo-Saxon Futhork. This writing system was used on items of all shapes and sizes, and is quite fascinating for that reason. Two of this script’s artefacts, the Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket, are especially interesting for the insight they give us into Anglo-Saxon culture and the relationship of the Anglo-Saxon runes with Christianity.

The first of these is the Ruthwell Cross. This stone cross dates from the 8th century and is some 5.5m (18 feet) high, with relief carvings and inscriptions decorating most of its surface. The inscriptions surround the scenes depicted on the cross, and they are carved not just in the letters of the Latin alphabet, but also partially in runes that have been identified as belonging to the Anglo-Saxon Futhork. These runic inscriptions have been identified as part of a poem that survives in a later manuscript copy. The poem is called “The Dream of the Rood” and is a verse meditation on Christ’s crucifixion.

It is certainly an appropriate inscription for a clearly Christian stone monument, which depicts scenes from Christ’s life with Latin “captions” on its northern and southern faces. While the runes are not directly referring to the scenes on the casket (there are also runes written on the remaining two sides of the cross, which bear no scenes but rather decorative scroll work of plants and birds), they do add another dimension to the monument.⁸ They are also possibly the very earliest text, specifically of English poetry, surviving to this day.

A similar intermingling of the Anglo-Saxon runes and Christian elements exists in the artefact known as Franks Casket. This box made from whalebone is now mostly in the British Museum, although one panel has somehow made its way to Italy, and so only a cast of that side can be displayed with the remainder of the casket. Though even damaged, it is an impressive sight, for it is carved and decorated with images and inscriptions on every side.

These images depict scenes from various sources, some historical or semi-historical, such as the founding myth of Rome, one Christian, and some from Germanic legend.

On the front, which you can see depicted below, the scene on the left shows the legend of Wayland the Smith. One of the best-known legends from Northwestern Europe, this legend is known among all the cultures that used the runes in medieval times. In stark contrast, the scene on the right shows the Adoration of the Magi, one of the most iconic Christian images of the time from the Christmas nativity story. If you look closely, you will notice a small square with a runic inscription above the figures of the three wise men. I’m sure you can all read what it says at this point in your studies. 

The inscriptions on the casket are also surprisingly diverse in their pairings of script and language. There is an intriguing mix of runic inscriptions which, when transcribed, form words in Old English, alongside occasional sections written in the Latin alphabet, as well as runic sections that transcribe into Latin, rather than English. It is, without a doubt, an example of variety. One of the sides even contains an inscription that is further obscured by the use of a code, which, although technically deciphered, is still not entirely understood.⁹

There is so much to discover about this object, that it would by far exceed our time today. For those of you who are interested, I will point out a few starting points including: a basic, but informative, article here and a page where all the runic inscriptions have been transcribed that offers translations as well. However, you should remember that this is only one interpretation, and no one interpretation has been universally agreed upon.

Lastly, it would not do to talk about Anglo-Saxon runic artefacts without mentioning the group of similar items known collectively as “amulet rings.”¹⁰ Found in various parts of England and dated back to roughly the 11th century C.E., these rings all bear very similar inscriptions, the base of which is transcribed to: ærkriuflt | kriuriþon | glæstæpon | tol. The first of these words was thought by some to be related to an Old Irish charm bearing substantial similarities, including the word “ærcrio” in its formulaic incantation, whose purpose was staunching blood. More frequently, however (and particularly by Muggles), the inscription is supposed to be simple nonsense, and jewelry worn by men and women belonging to a cult.

Runes and Controversial Magic
Those of you who paid attention on the first day, will be waiting to hear both sides of the story for these artefacts. As we’ve mentioned, there are competing theories as to whether or not the younger Germanic runes were inherently magical, and those who remain firmly convinced of the younger runes’ magical powers have a few artefacts they insist prove their theories. Now that we’ve covered the facts about each object, we will go on to examine evidence and theories from multiple sides of the argument. Some of these, like the Hagia Sophia, are little more than ancient graffiti, but others, like The Kingsmoor Ring, have much more mystery surrounding them.

Transitional artefacts like the runestones mentioned in this lesson do little to prove anything for anyone. The inscriptions are not purely Younger or Anglo-Saxon Futhark as they contain runes from the proven magical script, the Elder Futhark. Therefore, it is easy to imply that any alleged or potential magical effect stems from the runes of the older script.

Still, there are some artefacts which are viewed as debatable, even by scholars that walk the middle of the two roads. We will briefly examine two examples here to give you an idea of how to come to your own conclusions on other artefacts you may come across in later study, explorations, or excavations. I will not come to any direct conclusions here, leaving you to make up your own mind based on the information, the logic provided, or merely a gut feeling.

The first of these is Franks Casket. Starting with the “opposition,” those who insist the younger Germanic runes have no magic point out that even if the Anglo-Saxon Futhork was to possess some magical ability, it would have been foolhardy and uncommon to combine magic runes alongside Christianity, the religion that was currently oppressing said magic. Moreover, many point to the fact that Franks Casket was examined in-depth by a team of undercover curse-breakers posing as curators (a lengthy and costly endeavor), and was found to have no current magical ability; that is, the Enchantment Revealing Charm showed no signs of magical activity.

However, contenders point out that, as the casket was no longer in its original state, and no longer “whole,” the magic may likely have dissipated, due to runic magic’s reliance upon the base material to be kept intact.¹¹ Additionally, the interesting mixture of the languages and scripts used, including the presence of a yet-undeciphered code is a red flag, as often times, magic is simply considered “nonsense,” an “undecipherable language,” or a “code” by Muggles, or others who do not understand.

The “amulet rings,” so titled by the 19th century Muggle archaeologist George Stephens, are another example of “meaningless” nonsense or undecipherable language, at least by his account.¹² Proponents of the possibilities of Anglo-Saxon runic magic, however, strongly disagree. Believers point to strong evidence from Bald’s Leechbook -- a book proven to contain accounts of magic and documentation of actual spells -- in the form of a spell that closely mirrors the inscriptions on the rings. Unfortunately, when one of the rings -- specifically, the Agate ring -- was taken from its Muggle owners for a practical test, it was found to have no obvious magical uses, most importantly, its inability to staunch blood.¹³ After what is now known as the “Agate Debacle” in magiarchaeologist circles, no further tests on the ring were made, and it was arranged to be found again by Muggles. Since then, despite believers rallying for further study on any of these rings, there have been no attempts made to take these rings from their places in Muggle museums.

Some believe that the reason that the spell did not work as it was written for a number of reasons, including: issues with the material upon which the runes were carved, misinterpreting the strength or intent of the spell,¹⁴ a need to be re-activated due to differences from the way Elder Futhark runes function, unrealized and undiscovered damage to the artefact, and many other things. Still, none of these theories have been tested largely due to the prevailing thought that it would prove a waste of time, and because of the rings’ connection with casualties.

With that, I will leave you to your thoughts on this matter. Whatever the case, we certainly have enough to study in this class -- we have only just scratched the surface, truly. To discover that there is indeed some magic ability in the younger runic alphabets would be a breakthrough. However, even if they are proven irrevocably non-magical, these runes still served a great purpose, such as allowing the magical community a safe way to record information, without risking the information to be imbued with magic unless they explicitly wanted it to be.

Conclusion
This brings us to the end of today’s lesson, and also to the end of our studies for this year. Next week, you will have a short review lesson followed by your final exams. Make sure you study all we have learned this year -- and it wouldn’t hurt to also take a look at what we learned last year. For your work today, you have an assortment of assignments meant to help you review.

Footnotes:
1. R.I. Page, Runes, p. 26.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., p. 27.
4. No, your eyes did not deceive you. Curse-breakers are not solely confined to Egypt, but travel all over the world, depending on the need. You can indeed work as a curse-breaker in our very own United Kingdom, though there are fewer ongoing projects.
5. Ibid., p. 53
6. Ibid., p. 43
7. Ibid., p. 47
8. Ibid., p. 46
9. For a closer look at the runes, go here.
10. This category commonly includes: the Agate Ring, the Bramham Moor Ring, the Copper Ring, the Kingsmoor Ring (also called the Greymoor Hill Ring), and the Linstock Castle Ring. Some consider there to be more, however, they less neatly fall into this category, as the inscriptions are only vaguely similar or are missing certain characteristics.
11. Refer back to Year Two, Lesson Nine if you require a refresher on limitations and weaknesses of runic magic.
12. G. Stephens, The Handbook of the Old-Northern Runic Monuments, p. 158
13. Much to the dismay of Securus Blüt and his wife.  
14. Even moderate runologists have hypothesized that the spell may not have been able to prevent “bleeding out” in battle, but instead used as an amulet to be worn during childbirth, or as a monthly feminine aid.

Vocabulary
Bracteates: Small, thin, one-sided metal disks worn as jewelry, often bearing stamped designs, including runes. Specifically worn in Northern Europe during the Germanic Iron Age.
Fibula: a brooch or pin for fastening garments, loosely related to a safety pin, that was used during the Middle Ages.
Old Danish: Also called “Old East Norse.” A language spoken alongside the Younger Futhark used largely in the geographical regions now known as Denmark and Sweden. Used (roughly) between 800 C.E. and 1,100 C.E.

Original lesson written by Professor Mathilda Stevens
Additional portions written by Professor Venita Wessex
Image credits here, here, here, here, and here